We need to find out what the author’s propositions are. He may tell us outright. But keep in mind that his propositions are nothing but expressions of his opinion unless he supports them with reasons. So find the propositions, and find out the reasons. And also find out why he is trying to convince us of his propositions. Do they have a role in answering the question(s)?
To find arguments, look for if this is so, then or phrases with therefore, follow etc.
In the first stage the goal was to examine the structure and focus on the outline. In this stage it is to start from the bottom and see how it builds the structure (opposite).
You work down to propositions and arguments by dividing the book into parts. Then you work up to arguments by seeing how they are composed of propositions and ultimately terms.
Propositions are the answers to questions.
Rule 6: Mark the most important sentences in the book and discover propositions they contain.
Rule 7: Locate or construct the basic arguments in the book by finding them in the connection of sentences.
The most important sentences for you are the ones you have difficulty understanding or that require a lot of thinking to understand. They may not be the most important for the author, but chances are that they are.
A clue for the location of principal propositions: They must belong to the main argument of the book. They must be either premises or conclusions. Thus, if you see some sentences that seem to form a sequence where there is a beginning and end, it is a good candidate for an important proposition.
Do not confuse sentences that interest you with important sentences! Focus on those that puzzle you.
How do you know if you understand a proposition?
- State any proposition in your own words! Only then will you understand.
- Can you point to an experience you have had that the proposition describes or is relevant? Can you exemplify the general truth by referring to a particular instance of it? Even an imaginary case is fine.
Not all propositions are equally susceptible to this test. You may, for example, need a lab (e.g. biology).
Every argument will usually have two parts: The conclusion and the reasons you should believe the conclusion. Sometimes they’ll list the conclusion first, other times it is last. In any case, identify which is which.
Distinguish between arguments that are deductive vs inductive (i.e. starting from a general principle going down to specifics or vice versa).
Note which things he assumes, vs things he says can be shown/proven, vs things that are “self-evident”. Distinguish between these three.
Every argument will begin either with an assumption or a self-evident statement. Note that these are not the same. With an assumption, you need not agree with the assumption - you just stipulate it as is and see if the argument makes sense (you may still reject the whole argument based on a disbelief of these assumptions). With a self-evident statement, you should ponder over whether it really is self-evident.
In other words, the writer can state an assumption which is provable or falsifiable, but with self-evident statements, it likely is not (in the writer’s mind). An assumption is not equivalent to an axiom.
Once you’ve done all this, ask:
- Which of the problems did he succeed in solving?
- In the process of solving them, did he raise any new problems?
- If he failed to solve any, did he acknowledge this?
Thus, we come to Rule 8: Find out what the author’s solutions are.